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12-12-2010, 09:57 PM
#1

islamtrureligion
Junior Member



Join Date: Oct 2010
Location: uk
Gender: Male
Posts: 58 100 questions about al Quran
________________________________________



Q) What is the meaning of the word "Qur'an"?
A) That which is Read.

Q) Where was the Qur'an revealed first?
A) In the cave of Hira (Makkah)

Q) On which night was the Qur'an first revealed?
A) Lailatul-Qadr (Night of the Power)

Q) Who revealed the Qur'an?
A) Allah revealed the Qur'an

Q) Through whom was the Qur'an revealed?
A) Through Angel Jibraeel (Alaihis-Salaam)

Q) To whom was the Qur'an revealed?
A) To the last Prophet Muhammed (Sallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

Q) Who took the responsibility of keeping the Qur'an safe?
A) Allah himself

Q) What are the conditions for holding or touching the Qur'an?
A) One has to be clean and to be with wudhu (ablution)

Q) Which is the book which is read most?
A) The Qur'an

Q) What is the topic of the Qur'an?
A) Man

Q) What are the other names of the Qur'an according to the Qur'an itself?
A) Al-Furqaan, Al-Kitaab, Al-Zikr, Al-Noor, Al-Huda

Q) How many Makki Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 86

Q) How many Madani Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 28

Q) How many Manzils (stages) are there in the Qur'an?
A)7

Q) How many Paara or Juz (parts) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 30

Q) How many Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 114

Q) How many Rukoo (paragraphs) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 540

Q) How many Aayaath (verses) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 6666

Q) How many times is the word 'Allah' repeated in the Qur'an?
A) 2698

Q) How many different types of Aayaath (verses) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 10

Q) Who is the first 'Haafiz' of the Qur'an?
A) Prophet Muhammed (Sallalahu Alaihi Wasallam)

Q) At the time of the death of Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) how many Huffaz were there?
A) 22

Q) How many Aayaaths (verses) on Sajda (prostation) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 14

Q) In which Paara (part) and Surah (chapter) do you find the first verse about Sajda (prostation)?
A) The 9th Paara, 7th Chapter-Surah-al-Araaf, Verse206

Q) How many times has the Qur'an stressed about Salaat or Namaaz (prayer)?
A) 700 times

Q) How many times has the Qur'an emphasized on alms or charity?
A) 150

Q) How many times in the Qur'an, is the Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) addressed as Yaa-Aiyu-Han-Nabi?
A)11 times

Q) Where in the Qur'an has Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) been named 'Ahmed'?
A)Paara 28, Surah Saff, Ayath 6

Q) How many times has the name of Rasool-ullah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) been mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) - 4 times Ahmed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) - 1 time.

Q) Name the Prophet whose name is mentioned and discussed most in the Qur'an?
A) Moosa (Alahis-Salaam)

Q) Who were the Kaathibe-Wahi (copyists of the revelations) of the Qur'an?
A) Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu), Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu), Ali (Radhiallahu Anhu), Zaid Bin Harith (Radhiallahu Anhu) And Abdullah bin Masood (Radhiallahu Anhu)

Q) Who was the first person who counted the Aayaath (verses) of the Qur'an?
A) Ayesha (Radhiallahu Anha)

Q) On whose advice did Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu) decide to compile the Qur'an?
A) Omer Farooq (Radhiallahu Anhu)

Q) On whose order was the Qur'an compiled completely in written form?
A) Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu)

Q) Who confined the recitation of the Qur'an on the style of the Quraysh tribe?
A) Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu)

Q) Out of the copies of the Qur'an compiled by Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu), how many and where are they at present?
A) Only 2 copies. One in Tashkent and the other in Istanbul.

Q) Which Surah of the Qur'an was Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) reciting while praying, that Hazrat Jabeer Bin Muth'im Listened to and embraced Islam?
A) Surah Thoor

Q) Which was that Surah of the Qur'an which the Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) had recited when one of his enemies Utba after listening to it fell in Sajda (prostation)?
A) The first five Ayaaths of Ham-Meem-Sajda

Q) Which is the first and the most ancient Mosque according to the Qur'an?
A) Kaaba.

Q) In Qur'an mankind is divided into two groups. Which are those two groups?
A) Believers and disbelievers.

Q) Who is the man about whom, Allah has said in the Qur'an that his body is kept as an admonishing example for future generations to come?
A) Fir'aun. (Pharaoh)

Q) Besides the body of Pharaoh, what is that thing which is kept as an admonishing example for future generations to come?
A )Noah's Ark.

Q) After the wreckage of Prophet Noah's Ark, which is its place of rest mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Cave of Judi.

Q) In the Qur'an the name of which companion of Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) is mentioned?
A) Zaid Bin Harith.

Q) Who is the relative of the Prophet Muahmmed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) whose name is mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Abu Lahab

Q) In the Qur'an there is a mention of a Prophet who has been called by his mother's name. Who was he?
A) Jesus Prophet (Isa Alahis salaam) is mentioned as bin Maryam.

Q) Which was the agreement that was titled Fath-hum-Mubeen' without fighting a battle?
A) Treaty of Hudaibiya.

Q) What are the different names used for Satan or Devil in the Qur'an?
A) Iblees and Ash-Shaitaan.

Q) Which category of creature does the Qur'an put 'Iblees' into?
A) Jinn.

Q) What were those worships and prayers that were ordered by Allah to the community of Bani Israeel and which were continued by the Muslim Ummah also?
A) Salaat and Zakaat. (Al-Baqarah:43)

Q) The Qur'an repeatedly warns of a certain day. Can you say which day it is?
A) Youmal Qiyamah. (Doomsday)

Q) Who were those people with whom Allah was pleased and they were pleased with Him, as mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Companions of Prophet Muhammed. (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

Q) In which Holy Book of Non-Muslims the Qur'an mentioned repeatedly?
A) In the Holy Book of Sikh Community-Granth Saheb.

Q) In which year were the vowels inserted in the Qur'an?
A) 43 Hijri.

Q) Who were the first serious students of the Qur'an? A) As-haabus Suffah.

Q) Which is the first Residential University where the faculty of the Qur'an was established for the first time?
A) Masjid-e-Nabvi. Mosque of the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

Q) By what name did the Qur'an address those noble and pious people who were selected by Allah to convey His message to mankind?
A) Nabi (Prophet) and Rasool (Messenger).

Q) What type of a person does the Qur'an want to make?
A) A Momin.

Q) What is the scale or measure of one's dignity according to the Qur'an?
A) Thaqwa. (Piety)

Q) What according to the Qur'an is the root cause of the evil?
A) Alcohol.

Q) What are the two most important types of kinds of Aayaaths (Verses) found in the Qur'an?
A) Muhakamaat and Muthashabihaath.

Q) Which is the longest Surah (Chapter) in the Qur'an?
A) Surah-al-Baqarah.

Q) Which is the smallest Surah in the Qur'an?
A) Surah-al-Kausar.

Q) What was the age of Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) when the Qur'an was first revealed to him through aeel (Alaihis-salaam)?
A) 40 Years

Q) How long did Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) receive the revelation of the Qur'an in Makkah?
A) 13 Years.

Q) How long did Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) receive the revelation of the Qur'an in Madinah?
A) 10 Years.

Q) Where was the first Surah revealed?
A) In Makkah.

Q) Where was the last Surah revealed?
A)In Madinah.

Q) How many years did it take for the complete revelation of the Qur'an?
A) 22 years, 5 months and 14 days.

Q) Which Surah (Chapter) of the Qur'an is to be read compulsorily in each raka'at of the Sallat (Namaaz)?
A) Surah-al-Fatihah.

Q) Which is the Surah, which Allah taught as a Du'a(Prayer)?
A) Surah-al-Fatihah.

Q) What is the reason of keeping Surah-al-Fatihah in the beginning of the Qur'an?
A) It is the door to the Qur'an

Q) What is the Surah (Chapter) revealed completely and found first place in the Qur'an?
A) Surah-al-Fatihah.

Q) Who was the only lady whose personal name is found in the Qur'an?
A) Bibi Mariam (Alaihis-salaam).

Q) In which Surah (Chapter) of the Qur'an do you find maximum instructions?
A) Surah-al-Baqarah.

Q) When and Where did the Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) and Jibraeel (Alaihis-salaam) meet for the second time?
A) On Friday,18th Ramadan,in the Cave of Hira.

Q) What was the interval between the first and the second revelation?
A) 2 years and six months.

Q) Which is the Surah (Chapter) that does start without Bismillah? A) Surah-al-Taubah or Bara'ath.

Q) In which Surah (Chapter) of the Qur'an is Bismillah repeated twice?
A) Surah-al Naml.

Q) How many Surahs (Chapters) in the Qur'an have the titles named after different Prophets?
A) 6 Surahs (Chapters)

Q) How many Surahs (Chapters) in the Qur'an have the titles named after different Prophets?
A) 6 Surahs (Chapters)
1- Surah-al-Yunus. 2- Surah-al-Hood. 3- Surah-al-Yusuf. 4- Surah-al-Ibraheem. 5- Surah-al-Nuh. 6- Surah-al-Muhammed.

Q) In which part of the Qur'an do you find 'Ayat-ul-Kursi' (Verse of the Throne)?
A) In the beginning of the third Part. (Chapter 2-55)

Q) How many different names of Allah are mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) 99.

Q) Who were the three non-prophets whose names are mentioned with due respect in the Qur'an?
A) Luqman, Aziz of Egypt and Zulqarnain.

Q) At the time Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu) how many companions had compiled the Qur'an in the form of a book?
A) 75 companions.

Q) Which is that only book which is completely memorized by millions of people in the world?
A) Al-Qur'an.

Q) What did the Jinns who heard a few Aayaaths (Verses) of the Qur'an say to each other?
A) We have heard a unique discourse which shows the right path, verily we believe in it.

Q) Which are the most popular transalations of the Qur'an in English?
A) Transalation by Muhammed Marmaduke Pickthall and by Allama Yusuf Ali.

Q) Into how many languages of the world has the Holy Qur'an been transalated?
A) Nearly 103 languages.

Q) Who was the first transalator of the Holy Qur'an into Urdu?
A) Moulana Shah Rafiuddin Muhaddis Dehlavi.

Q) What will be our condition on 'The day of the Judgement' according to the Qur'an?
A) Everybody will be in a state of anxiety.

Q) Who was the Prophet mentioned in the Qur'an whose three generations were prophets?
A) Ibraheem (Alaihis-salaam).

Q) What is that book which abolished all old rules and regulations?
A) Al-Qur'an.

Q) What does the Qur'an say about property and wealth?
A) They are tests of one's faith.

Q) According to the Qur'an who is "khaatamun Nabiyyeen" (the last of the Prophets)?
A) Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

Q) What is the name of the book that tells us clearly about the reality of the beginning and the end of the world?
A) Al-Qur'an.

Q) In the Qur'an what other name is given to the city of Makkah?
A) Bakkah and Baladul Ameen.

Q) According to the Qur'an what other name is given to the city of Madinah?
A) Yathrib.

Q) Whose Generation is known as "Bani Israeel" according to the Qur'an?
A) The generation of Prophet Yaqoob (Alaihis salaam) who is alsoknown as Israeel.

Q) Which are the 5 mosques that are mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) 1- Masjid-ul-Haram. 2- Masjid-ul-Zirar. 3- Masjid-ul-Nabawi. 4- Masjid-ul-Aqsa. 5- Masjid Quba.

Q) Which are the 4 angels that are mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) 1- Jibraeel Ameen. (Alaihis salaam) 2- Meekaeel. (Alaihis salaam) 3- Haroot. (Alaihis salaam) 4- Root.(Alaihis alaam)





















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09-30-2010, 04:13 PM
#1

Afthab
Junior Member



Join Date: Sep 2010
Gender: Male
Posts: 35 50 Questions & Answers on The Quran
________________________________________
50 Questions & Answers on The Quran

1) What is the meaning of the word 'Qur'an'?
A) That which is Read.

2) Where was the Qur'an revealed first?
A) In the cave of Hira (Makkah)

3) On which night was the Qur'an first revealed?
A) Lailatul-Qadr (Night of the Power)

4) Who revealed the Qur'an?
A) Allah revealed the Qur'an

5) Through whom was the Qur'an revealed?
A) Through Angel Jibraeel (Alaihis-Salaam)

6) To whom was the Qur'an revealed?
A) To the last Prophet, Muhammed (Sallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

7) Who took the responsibility of keeping the Qur'an safe?
A) Allah himself

8) What are the conditions for holding or touching the Qur'an?
A) One has to be clean and to be with wudhu (ablution)

9) Which is the book which is read most?
A) The Qur'an

10) What is the topic of the Qur'an?
A) Man

11) What are the other names of the Qur'an according to the Qur'an itself?
A) Al-Furqaan, Al-Kitaab, Al-Zikr, Al-Noor,Al-Huda

12) How many Makki Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 86

13) How many Madani Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 28

14) How many Manzils (stages) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 7

15) How many Paara or Juz (parts) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 30

16) How many Surahs (chapters) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 114

17) How many Rukoo (paragraphs) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 540

18) How many Aayaath (verses) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 6666

19) How many times is the word 'Allah' repeated in the Qur'an?
A) 2698

20) How many different types of Aayaath (verses) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 10

21) Who is the first 'Haafiz' of the Qur'an?
A) Prophet Muhammed (Sallalahu Alaihi Wasallam)

22) At the time of the death of Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)

how many Huffaz were there?
A) 22

23) How many Aayaath (verses) on Sajda (prostat ion) are there in the Qur'an?
A) 14

24) In which Paara (part) and Surah (chapter) do you find the first verse about Sajda prostation) ?
A) 9th Paara, 7th Chapter-Surah- al-Araaf, Verse 206

25) How many times has the Qur'an stressed about Salaat or Namaaz (prayer)?
A) 700 times

26) How many times has the Qur'an emphasized on alms or charity?
A) 150

27) How many times in the Qur'an, is the Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) addressed asYaa-Aiyu-Han- Nabi?
A) 11 times

28) Where in the Qur'an has Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) been named 'Ahmed'?
A) Paara 28th, Surah Saff, Ayath 6th

29) How many times has the name of Rasool-ullah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) been mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)-4times Ahmed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)-1 time

30) Name the Prophet whose name is mentionedand discussed most in the Qur'an?
A) Moosa (Alahis-Salaam)

31) Who were the Kaathibe-Wahi (copyists of the revelations) of the Qur'an?
A) Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu), Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu), Ali
(Radhiallahu Anhu), Zaid Bin Harith(Radhiallahu Anhu) And Abdullah bin Masood(Radhiallahu Anhu)

32) Who was the first person who counted the Aayaath (verses) of the Qur'an?
A) Ayesha (Radhiallahu Anha)

33) On whose advice did Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu) decide to compile the Qur'an?
A) Omer Farooq(Radhiallahu Anhu)

34) On whose order was the Qur'an compiled completely in written form?
A) Abu Bakr (Radhiallahu Anhu)

35) Who confined the recitation of the Qur'an on the style of the Quraysh

tribe?
A) Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu)

36) Out of the copies of the Qur'an compiled by Usman (Radhiallahu Anhu), how many and where are they at present?
A) Only 2 copies. One in Tashkent and the other in Istanbul.

37) Which Surah of the Qur'an was Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) reciting while praying, that Hazrat Jabeer Bin Muth'im Listened to and embraced Islam?
A) Surah Thoor

38) Which was that Surah of the Qur'an which the Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) had recited when one of his enemies Utba after listening to it fell in Sajda (prostation) ?

A) The first five Ayaaths of Ham-Meem-Sajda

39) Which is the first and the most ancient Mosque according to the Qur'an?
A) Kaaba

40) In Qur'an mankind is divided into two groups.Which are those two groups?
A) Believers and disbelievers

41) Who is the man about whom, Allah has said in the Qur'an that his body is kept as an admonishing example for future generations to come?
A) Fir'aun. (Pharaoh)

42) Besides the body of Pharaoh, what is that thing which is kept as an admonishing example for future generations to come?
A) Noah's Ark.

43) After the wreckage of Prophet Noah's Ark, which is its place of rest mentioned in the Qur'an?

A) Cave of Judi.

44) In the Qur'an the name of whic h companion of Prophet Muhammed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) is mentioned?
A) Zaid Bin Harith.

45) Who is the relative of the Prophet Muahmmed (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam)whose name is mentioned in the Qur'an?
A) Abu Lahab

46) In the Qur'an there is a mention of a Prophet who has been called by his mother's name. Who was he?
A) Jesus [Prophet Isa (Alahis salaam)] is mentioned as bin Maryam.

47) Which was the agreement that was titled Fath-hum-Mubeen' without fighting a battle?
A) Treaty of Hudaibiya

48) What are the different names used for Satan or Devil in the Qur'an?
A) Iblees and Ash-Shaitaan.

49) Which category of creature does the Qur'an put 'Iblees' into?
A) Jinn.

50) What were those worships and prayers that were ordered by Allah to the community of Bani Israeel and which were continued by the Muslim Ummah also?
A) Salaat and Zakaat. (Al-Baqarah: 43)

















Qur'an
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Qur'an





The seven verses of Al-Fatiha, the first sura of the Qur'an.
The Qur’an (English pronunciation: /kɒˈrɑːn/ kor-AHN; Arabic: القرآن‎ al-qur’ān, IPA: [qurˈʔaːn], literally “the recitation”) is the religious text of Islam,[1] also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Kuran,Koran, Qur’ān, Coran or al-Qur’ān. It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in theArabic language.[2][3][4] Muslims hold that the Qur’an is the verbal divine guidance and moral direction for mankind.[5][6] Muslims also consider the original Arabic verbal text to be the final revelation of God[7][8][9][10]—the Final Testament.[11]
Muslims believe that the Qur’an was gradually revealed from Allah to Muhammad verbally through the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) over a period of approximately twenty-three years, beginning in 610 CE, when he was forty, and concluding in 632 CE, the year of his death.[7][12][13] Followers of Islam further believe that the Qur’an was memorized, recited and written down by Muhammad's companions after every revelation dictated byMuhammad. Most of Muhammad's tens of thousands of companions, called Sahabas, learned the Qur’an by heart, repeatedly recited in front of Muhammad for his approval or the approval of other Sahabas. Muslim tradition agrees that although the Qur’an was authentically memorized completely by tens of thousands verbally, the Qur’an was still established textually into a single book form shortly after Muhammad's death by order of the firstCaliph Abu Bakr suggested by his future successor Umar. Hafsa, Muhammad's widow and Umar's daughter, was entrusted with that Qur'an text after the second Caliph Umar died. When Uthman, the third Caliph, started noticing slight differences in the Arabic dialect; he requested Hafsa to allow him to use the Qur’an text in her possession to be set as the standard dialect, the Quraish dialect aka Fus'ha (Modern Standard Arabic). Before returning that Qur'an text to Hafsa; Uthman immediately made several thousands of copies of Abu Bakar's Qur’anic compilation and, to standardize the text, invalidated all other versions of the Qur'an. This process of formalization of the orally transmitted text to Abu Bakar's Qur'anic text is known as the "Uthmanic recension".[14] The present form of the Qur’an text is accepted by most scholars as the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.[14][15]

Vocal

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Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Muslims regard the Qur’an as the main miracle of Muhammad, as proof of his prophethood,[16] and as the culmination of a series of divine messages. These started, according to Islamic belief, with the messages revealed to Adam, regarded in Islam as the first prophet, and continued with the Suhuf Ibrahim (Scrolls of Abraham),[17] the Tawrat (Torah or Pentateuch) of Moses,[18][19] the Zabur (Tehillim or Book of Psalms) ofDavid,[20][21] and the Injil (Gospel) of Jesus.[22][23][24] The Qur'an assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in Jewish and Christian scriptures, summarizing some, dwelling at length on others, and, in some cases, presenting alternative accounts and interpretations of events.[25][26][27] The Qur'an describes itself as a book of guidance, sometimes offering detailed accounts of specific historical events, and often emphasizing the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.[28][29]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology and meaning
• 2 History
o 2.1 Prophetic era
o 2.2 Compiling the Mus'haf
• 3 Significance in Islam
o 3.1 Uniqueness
• 4 Text
o 4.1 Content
o 4.2 Literary structure
• 5 Interpretation and meanings
o 5.1 Tafsir
o 5.2 Ta'wil
o 5.3 Levels of meaning
o 5.4 Translations
• 6 Literary usage
o 6.1 Recitation
 6.1.1 Schools of recitation
o 6.2 Writing and printing
• 7 Relationship with other literature
o 7.1 Torah, Hebrew Bible and New Testament
o 7.2 Similarities with Christian apocrypha‎
o 7.3 Arab writing
• 8 Culture
• 9 See also
• 10 Notes
• 11 References
• 12 Further reading
• 13 External links

Etymology and meaning
The word qur`ān appears about 70 times in the Qur’an itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun(maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qara`a (Arabic: قرأ), meaning “he read” or “he recited.” The Syriac equivalent isqeryānā, which refers to “scripture reading” or “lesson”. While most Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara`a itself.[30] In any case, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[7] An important meaning of the word is the “act of reciting”, as reflected in an early Qur’anic passage: “It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qur`ānahu)”.[31]
In other verses, the word refers to “an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]”. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the “revelation” (wahy), that which has been “sent down” (tanzīl) at intervals.[32][33] Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur`ān is recited, listen to it and keep silent".[34] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.[35]
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Qur’an. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qur`ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb (“book”); āyah (“sign”); and sūrah (“scripture”). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. Other related words are: dhikr, meaning "remembrance," used to refer to the Qur’an in the sense of a reminder and warning; and hikma, meaning “wisdom”, sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[30][36]
The Qur’an has many other names. Among those found in the text itself are al-furqan (“discernment” or “criterion”), al-huda (“"the guide”), dhikrallah (“the remembrance of God”), al-hikmah (“the wisdom”), andkalamallah (“the word of God”). Another term is al-kitāb (“the book”), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf ("written work") is often used to refer to particular Qur'anic manuscripts but is also used in the Qur’an to identify earlier revealed books.[7]
History
Main article: History of the Qur'an
Prophetic era
See also: Wahy
Islamic tradition relates that during one of Muhammad's isolated retreats to the mountains, he received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of twenty-three years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered a considerable number of the companions (sahaba) to recite the Qur’an and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. Companions who engaged in the recitation of the Qur’an were called qurra'. Since most sahaba were unable to read or write, they were ordered to learn from the prisoners-of-war the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of sahaba gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Qur’an was recorded on tablets, bones and the wide, flat ends of date palmfronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Qur’an did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632.[37][38]
Welch, a scholar of Islamic studies, states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. Muhammad's critics, however, accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well-known in ancient Arabia. Additionally, Welch states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad began to see himself as a prophet.[39]
The Qur’an states that Muhammad was ummi,[40] interpreted as illiterate in Muslim tradition. According to Watt, the meaning of the Qur’anic term ummi is unscriptured rather than illiterate.
Compiling the Mus'haf
See also: Mus'haf and Tahrif


Qur'an manuscript from the 7th century CE, written on vellum in the Hijazi script.
According to Shias, Sufis and scarce Sunni scholars, Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur’anmus'haf [7] immediately after Muhammad's death. The order of this mus'haf differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against standardized mus'haf, but kept his own book.[37][41]
After seventy reciters were killed in the Battle of Yamama, the caliph Abu Bakr decided to collect the different chapters and verses into one volume. Thus, a group of reciters, including Zayd ibn Thabit, collected the chapters and verses and produced several hand-written copies of the complete book.[42][37]


9th century Qur'an manuscript.
In about 650, as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, the third caliph Uthman ibn Affan ordered the preparation of an official, standardized version, to preserve the sanctity of the text (and perhaps to keep the Rashidun Empire united, see Uthman Qur'an). Five reciters from amongst the companions produced a unique text from the first volume, which had been prepared on the orders of Abu Bakr and was kept with Hafsa bint Umar. The other copies already in the hands of Muslims in other areas were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were destroyed by burning or boiling. This remains the authoritative text of the Qur’an to this day.[37][43][44]
The Qur’an in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance. Historically, controversy over the content of the Qur’an has rarely become an issue, although debate does continue on the subject.[45][46]
Significance in Islam


11th Century North African Qur’an in theBritish Museum
Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for humanity and consider the text in its original Arabic to be the literal word of God,[47] revealed to Muhammadthrough the angel Gabriel over a period of twenty-three years[12][13] and view the Qur’an as God's final revelation to humanity.[10][12]
Wahy in Islamic and Qur’anic concept means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzul (to come down). As the Qur'an says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down." It designates positive religion, the letter of the revelation dictated by the angel to the prophet. It means to cause this revelation to descend from the higher world. According to hadith, the verses were sent down in special circumstances known as asbab al-nuzul. However, in this view God himself is never the subject of coming down.[48]
The Qur'an frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained, an assertion that Muslims believe. The Qur'an — often referring to its own textual nature and reflecting constantly on its divine origin — is the most meta-textual, self-referential religious text. The Qur'an refers to a written pre-text that records God's speech even before it was sent down.[49][50]
The issue of whether the Qur'an is eternal or created was one of the crucial controversies among early Muslim theologians. Mu'tazilis believe it is created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians consider the Qur'an to be eternal and uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.[51]
Muslims maintain the present wording of the Qur'anic text corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: as the words of God, said to be delivered to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Muslims consider the Qur'an to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Qur'an, as the Qur'an itself maintains.
Therefore an Islamic philosopher introduces a prophetology to explain how the divine word passes into human expression. This leads to a kind of esoteric hermeneutics that seeks to comprehend the position of the prophet by mediating on the modality of his relationship not with his own time, but with the eternal source his message emanates from. This view contrasts with historical critique of western scholars who attempt to understand the prophet through his circumstances, education and type of genius.[52]
Uniqueness
See also: Qur'an and miracles
Muslims believe that the Qur'an is different from all other books in ways that are impossible for any other book to be, such that similar texts cannot be written by humans. These include both mundane and miraculous claims. The Qur’an itself challenges any who disagree with its divine origin to produce a text of a miraculous nature.[53]
Scholars of Islam believe that its poetic form is unique and of a fashion that cannot be written by humans. They also claim it contains accurate prophecy and that no other book does.[54][55][56][57][58]
Text
Main articles: Sura and Ayah


The first four verses (ayat) of Al-Alaq, the 96th chapter (surah) of the Qur'an.
The text of the Qur’an consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Chapters are classed as Meccan or Medinan, depending on when (before or after Hijra) the verses were revealed. Chapter titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sura. Muslims believe that Muhammad, on God's command, gave the chapters their names.[7] Generally, longer chapters appear earlier in the Qur’an, while the shorter ones appear later. The chapter arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each sura except the ninth starts with the Basmala,[59] an Arabic phrase meaning (“In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful”). There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the basmala in the Qur’an, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[60]
Each sura is formed from several ayat (verses), which originally means a sign or portent sent by God. The number of verses differ from chapter to chapter. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The verses are unlike the highly refined poetry of the pre-Islamic Arabs in their content and distinctive rhymes and rhythms, being more akin to the prophetic utterances marked by inspired discontinuities found in the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The actual number of ayat has been a controversial issue among Muslim scholars since Islam's inception, some recognizing 6,000, some 6,204, some 6,219, and some 6,236, although the words in all cases are the same. The most popular edition of the Qur’an, which is based on the Kufa school tradition, contains 6,236 ayat.[7]
There is a crosscutting division into 30 parts of roughly equal division, ajza, each containing two units called ahzab, each of which is divided into four parts (rub 'al-ahzab). The Qur’an is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manazil, for it to be recited in a week.[7]
The Qur’anic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[7] The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order, and presence of repetition.[61][62]
Fourteen different Arabic letters form 14 different sets of “Qur’anic Initials” (the "Muqatta'at", such as A.L.M. of 2:1) and prefix 29 suras in the Qur’an. The meaning and interpretation of these initials is considered unknown to most Muslims. In 1974, Egyptian biochemist Rashad Khalifa claimed to have discovered a mathematical code based on the number 19,[63] which is mentioned in Sura 74:30[64] of the Qur’an.
Content
Main articles: List of Qur'anic figures, Justice in the Qur'an, and Qur'an and science
See also: List of persons related to Qur'anic verses and Legends and the Qur'an
The Qur'anic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and the nature of revelation. Historical events are related to outline general moral lessons.
Literary structure
The Qur’an's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the chapters and verses employphonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. There is consensus among Arab scholars[who?] to use the Qur’an as a standard by which other Arabic literature should be measured. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Qur’an itself) that the Qur’anic content and style is inimitable.[65]
Richard Gottheil and Siegmund Fränkel in the Jewish Encyclopedia write that the oldest portions of the Qur’an reflect significant excitement in their language, through short and abrupt sentences and sudden transitions. The Qur’an nonetheless carefully maintains the rhymed form, like the oracles. Some later portions also preserve this form but also in a style where the movement is calm and the style expository.[66]
Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming "disorganization" of Qur’anic literary expression — its "scattered or fragmented mode of composition," in Sells's phrase — is in fact a literary device capable of delivering "profound effects — as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated."[67][68] Sells also addresses the much-discussed "repetitiveness" of the Qur’an, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
Interpretation and meanings
Tafsir
Main article: Tafsir
The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (tafsir), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Qur’anic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."[69]
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Qur’an, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.[70] Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Abbas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kab. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.[71]
Because the Qur’an is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Qur’anic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Qur’an. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Qur’anic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansukh).[72][73][74]
Ta'wil
Main article: Esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an
See also: Qur'anic hermeneutics and Exegesis
Ja'far Kashfi defines ta'wil as 'to lead back or to bring something back to its origin or archetype'. It is a science whose pivot is a spiritual direction and a divine inspiration, while the tafsir is the literal exegesis of the letter; its pivot is the canonical Islamic sciences.[75] Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Qur’an, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Qur’an issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse; rather it transpires through that meaning – a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality, which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and there is an actual significance a Qur’anic story refers to.[76][77]
However Shia and Sufism (on the one hand) and Sunni (on the other) have completely different positions on the legitimacy of ta'wil. A verse in the Qur’an[78] addresses this issue, but Shia and Sunni disagree on how it should be read. According to Shia, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like the Prophet and the imams know the secrets of the Qur’an, while Sunnis believe that only God knows. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except Allah" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Qur’an's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Qur’an to a certain extent.[77]
The most ancient spiritual commentary on the Qur'an consists of the teachings the Shia Imams propounded in conversations with their disciples. It was the principles of their spiritual hermeneutics that were subsequently brought together by the Sufis. These texts are narrated by Imam Ali and Ja'far al-Sadiq, Shia and Sunni Sufis.[79]
As Corbin narrates from Shia sources, Ali himself gives this testimony:
Not a single verse of the Qur’an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God, which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse that abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), themuhkam (without ambiguity) and the mutashabih (ambiguous), the particular and the general...[80]
According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger, and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Qur’anic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.[77][81]
Therefore Sufi spiritual interpretations are usually accepted by Islamic scholars as authentic, as long as certain conditions are met.[82] In Sufi history, these interpretations were sometimes considered religious innovations (bid'ah), as Salafis believe today. However, ta'wil is extremely controversial even amongst Shia. For example, when Ayatollah Ruhallah Khomeini, the leader of Islamic revolution, gave some lectures aboutSura al-Fatiha in December 1979 and January 1980, protests forced him to suspend them before he could continue beyond the first two verses of the surah.[83]
Levels of meaning
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Qur’an is not restricted to the literal aspect.[84] For them, it is an essential idea that the Qur’an also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back toMuhammad:
"The Qur'an possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."[84]
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Qur’an does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.[85] Corbin considers the Qur’an to play a part in Islamic philosophy, becausegnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[86]
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil (“interpretation” or “explanation”), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Qur’an is known only to God.[7] In contrast, Qur'anic literalism, followed by Salafis andZahiris, is the belief that the Qur'an should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
Translations
Main article: Qur'an translations


The first Qur'an to be translated into a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647.


Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Qur'an.
Translation of the Qur’an has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Many argue that the Qur’anic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.[87] Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.[88]
The first complete translation of the Qur'an was completed in 884 CE in Alwar (Sindh, India now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.[89]
Nevertheless, the Qur’an has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages.[88] The first translator of the Qur’an was Salman the Persian, who translated Fatiha into Persian during the 7th century.[90] The first complete translation of Qur'an was into Persian during the reign of Samanids in the 9th century. Islamic tradition holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Qur’an.[88] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.


Verses 33 and 34 of sura Ya-Seen in this Chinese translation of the Qur'an.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.[88] In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Qur'an was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.[91]
Robert of Ketton's translation of the Qur'an, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin) for Peter the Venerable in 1143.[92] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) byAndre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Qur’an into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims.
The English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "you".[93]
Most Qur’anic translations are based on human dictions, as most Arabic terms have a wide range of meanings. As an example, most English translations of The Romans chapter in the Qur'an states, "Certainly, the Romans will be defeated. In the nearest land".[94] That was the only recognized explanation before the science era, considering that theRoman-Persian war—when Romans were defeated then recaptured Jerusalem—was near Mecca. Geologists proved that the Dead Sea region—the defense point of Jerusalem where the battle occurred—is the lowest elevation on earth.[95] Concluding, the Qur'an was actually pointing to the lowest land instead of the inferred nearest land, as all dictionaries translate the same Arabic word "أدنى" to lowest, too.[96]
Literary usage
In addition to and largely independent of the division into suras, there are various ways of dividing the Qur’an into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and memorization. The thirty ajza can be used to read through the entire Qur’an in a week or a month. Some of these parts are known by names and these names are the first few words by which the juz' starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ahzab, and each hizb subdivided into four rub 'al-ahzab. A different structure is provided by the ruku'at, semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each. Some also divide the Qur’an into seven manazil to facilitate complete recitation in a week.
Recitation
“ ...and recite the Qur’an in slow, measured rhythmic tones. ”
—Qur'an 73:4 (Yusuf Ali)

One meaning of Qur’an is "recitation", the Qur’an itself outlining the general method of how it is to be recited: slowly and in rhythmic tones. Tajwid is the term for techniques ofrecitation, and assessed in terms of how accessible the recitation is to those intent on concentrating on the words.[97]
To perform salat (prayer), a mandatory obligation in Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some sura of the Qur’an (typically starting with the first one, al-Fatiha, known as the "seven oft-repeated verses," and then moving on to the shorter ones at the end). Until one has learned al-Fatiha, a Muslim can only say phrases like "praise be to God" during the salat.


Qur'an with colour-coded tajwid rules.
A person whose recital repertoire encompasses the whole Qur’an is called a qari', whereas a memoriser of the Qur’an is called a hafiz (fem. Hafaz) (which translate as "reciter" or "protector," respectively). Muhammad is regarded as the first qari' since he was the first to recite it. Recitation (tilawa تلاوة) of the Qur’an is a fine art in the Muslim world.
Schools of recitation
Main article: Qira'at


Page of a 13th century Qur’an, showing Sura 33: 73
There are several schools of Qur’anic recitation, all of which teach possible pronunciations of the Uthmanic rasm: Seven reliable, three permissible and (at least) four uncanonical – in 8 sub-traditions each – making for 80 recitation variants altogether.[98] A canonical recitation must satisfy three conditions:
1. It must match the rasm, letter for letter.
2. It must conform with the syntactic rules of the Arabic language.
3. It must have a continuous isnad to Muhammad through tawatur, meaning that it has to be related by a large group of people to another down the isnad chain.
These recitations differ in the vocalization (tashkil) of a few words, which in turn gives a complementary meaning to the word in question according to the rules of Arabic grammar. For example, the vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can also change its stem formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops (hamzas) may be added or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular recitation. For example, the name of archangel Gabriel is pronounced differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl, Jibra'īl, and Jibra'il.
The more widely used narrations are those of Hafss (حفص عن عاصم), Warsh (ورش عن نافع), Qaloon (قالون عن نافع) and Al-Duri according to Abu `Amr (الدوري عن أبي عمرو). Muslims firmly believe that all canonical recitations were recited by Muhammad himself, citing the respective isnadchain of narration, and accept them as valid for worshipping and as a reference for rules of Sharia. The uncanonical recitations are called "explanatory" for their role in giving a different perspective for a given verse or ayah. Today several dozen persons hold the title "Memorizer of the Ten Recitations."
The presence of these different recitations is attributed to many hadith. Malik Ibn Anas has reported:[99]
Abd al-Rahman Ibn Abd al-Qari narrated: "Umar Ibn Khattab said before me: I heard Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam reading Surah Furqanin a different way from the one I used to read it, and the Prophet (sws) himself had read out this surah to me. Consequently, as soon as I heard him, I wanted to get hold of him. However, I gave him respite until he had finished the prayer. Then I got hold of his cloak and dragged him to the Prophet (sws). I said to him: "I have heard this person [Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam] reading Surah Furqan in a different way from the one you had read it out to me." The Prophet (sws) said: "Leave him alone [O 'Umar]." Then he said to Hisham: "Read [it]." [Umar said:] "He read it out in the same way as he had done before me." [At this,] the Prophet (sws) said: "It was revealed thus." Then the Prophet (sws) asked me to read it out. So I read it out. [At this], he said: "It was revealed thus; this Qur’an has been revealed in Seven Ahruf. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them.
Suyuti, a famous 15th century Islamic theologian, writes after interpreting above hadith in 40 different ways:[100]
"And to me the best opinion in this regard is that of the people who say that this hadith is from among matters of mutashabihat, the meaning of which cannot be understood."
Many reports contradict the presence of variant readings:[101]
 Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami reports, "the reading of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit and that of all the Muhajirun and theAnsar was the same. They read the Qur’an according to the Qira'at al-'ammah. This is the same reading the Prophet (sws) read twice toGabriel in the year of his death. Zayd ibn Thabit was also present in this reading [called] the 'Ardah-i akhirah. It was this very reading that he taught the Qur’an to people till his death".[102]
 Ibn Sirin writes, "the reading on which the Qur’an was read out to the prophet in the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading the Qur’an today".[103]
Javed Ahmad Ghamidi also purports that there is only one recitation of Qur’an, which is called Qira'at of Hafss or in classical scholarship, it is called Qira'at al-'ammah. The Qur'an has also specified that it was revealed in the language of Muhammad's tribe: theQuraysh.[Qur'an 19:97][Qur'an 44:58])[101]
However, the identification of the recitation of Hafss as the Qira'at al-'ammah is somewhat problematic when that was the recitation of the people of Kufa in Iraq, and there is better reason to identify the recitation of the reciters of Madinah as the dominant recitation. The reciter of Madinah was Nafi' and Imam Malik remarked "The recitation of Nafi' is Sunnah."
AZ [however] says that the people of El-Hijaz and Hudhayl, and the people of Makkah and Al-Madinah, to not pronouncehamzah [at all]: and 'Isa Ibn-'Omar says, Tamim pronounce hamzah, and the people of Al-Hijaz, in cases of necessity, [in poetry,] do so.[104]
Writing and printing


Page from a Qur’an ('Umar-i Aqta'). Iran, Afghanistan, Timurid dynasty, circa 1400. Opaquewatercolor, ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script. 170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in). Historical region: Uzbekistan.
Most Muslims today use printed editions of the Qur’an. There are many editions, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive or inexpensive. Bilingual forms with the Arabic on one side and a gloss into a more familiar language on the other are very popular.
Qur’ans are produced in many different sizes. Most are of a reasonable book size, but there exist extremely large Qur’ans (usually for display purposes) and very small Qur’ans (sometimes given as gifts).
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Qur’an was transmitted in manuscript books made by copyists and calligraphers. Short extracts from the Qur’an were printed in the medieval periodfrom carved wooden blocks, one block per page; a technique already widely used in China. However there are no records of complete Qur'ans produced in this way, which would have involved a very large investment.[105] Mass-produced less expensive versions of the Qur’an were produced from the 19th century by lithography, which allowed reproduction of the fine calligraphy of hand-made versions.[106]


The first and last chapters of the Qur'an together written in theShikastah style.
The oldest surviving Qur’an printed with movable type was produced inVenice in 1537/1538. It seems to have been prepared for sale in theOttoman empire, where all movable type printing using Arabic characters had been forbidden in 1485. This decree was reversed in 1588, but there remained strong resistance to adopting movable type printing for any subjects, let alone the Qur'an, until the late 19th century. This seems to have been partly from opposition by the large profession of copyists, and for aesthetic reasons, and fear of mistakes in the text.[107] Catherine the Great of Russia sponsored a printing of the Qur’an in 1787. This was followed by editions from Kazan (1828), Persia (1833) and Istanbul(1877).[108]
It is extremely difficult to render the full Qur’an, with all the points, in computer code, such as Unicode. TheInternet Sacred Text Archive makes computer files of the Qur’an freely available both as images[109] and in a temporary Unicode version.[110] Various designers and software firms have attempted to develop computer fonts that can adequately render the Qur’an.[111]
Since Muslim tradition felt that directly portraying sacred figures and events might lead to idolatry, it was considered wrong to decorate the Qur’an with pictures (as was often done for Christian texts, for example). Muslims instead lavished love and care upon the sacred text itself. Arabic is written in many scripts, some of which are complex and beautiful. Arabic calligraphy is a highly honored art, much like Chinese calligraphy. Muslims also decorated their Qur’ans with abstract figures (arabesques), colored inks, and gold leaf. Pages from some of these antique Qur’ans are displayed throughout this article.
Relationship with other literature
Torah, Hebrew Bible and New Testament
See also: Biblical narratives and the Qur'an and Tawrat
“ It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).[112]

—Qur'an 3:3 (Yusuf Ali)

The Qur'an speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and theGospel) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.[113]
According to Sahih Bukhari, the Quran was recited among Levantines and Iraqis, and discussed by Christians and Jews before it was standardized.[114] Its language was similarto the Syriac language. The Qur'an recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber,Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah,Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist, and Jesus are mentioned in the Qur’an as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets.
Similarities with Christian apocrypha‎
The Qur'an has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas,Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel.[115][116][117] One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.[118]
Arab writing


Muhaqqaq script
After the Qur’an, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.[119]
Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that:[120]
Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Qur’an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.
The main areas in which the Qur’an exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Qur’an particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Qur’anic words, idioms, and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Qur’an create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...
Culture


Arabic Qur'an with Persian translation.


Arabic Qur'an with Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era.
Most Muslims treat paper copies of the Qur’an with veneration, ritually washing before reading the Qur’an.[121] Worn out, torn, or errant (for example, pages out of order) Qur’ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but rather are left free to flow in a river, kept somewhere safe, burned, or buried in a remote location. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur’an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the contact prayers (salat). Those who have memorized the entire Qur’an earn the right to the title ofHafiz.[122]
Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77–79:"That this is indeed a Qur’an Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean.", many scholars believe that a Muslim must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu) before touching a copy of the Qur’an, or mus'haf, although this view is ubiquitous.
Qur'an desecration means mishandling the Qur’an by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims believe they should always treat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies of the text. Respect for the written text of the Qur’an is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims. They believe that intentionally insulting the Qur’an is a form of blasphemy.
The text of the Qur'an has become readily accessible over the internet, in Arabic as well as numerous translations in other languages. It can be downloaded and searched both word-by-word and with Boolean algebra. Photos of ancient manuscripts and illustrations of Qur'anic art can be witnessed. However, there are still limits to searching the Arabic text of the Qur'an.[123]
See also
 Qur'an and miracles
 Qur'an and Sunnah
 Qur'an reading
 Tafsir of the Qur'an
 Women in the Qur'an
 Qur'anic literalism
 History of the Qur'an
 Legends and the Qur'an
 Persons related to Qur'anic verses
 Ayah
 Surah
 Dhikr
 Digital Qur'an
 Hafiz
 Qur'an alone
 2010 Qur'an-burning controversy
 List of religious texts

Qur'an portal


Islam portal



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Notes
1. ^ From the article on the Quran in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
2. ^ Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page.
3. ^ Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x.
4. ^ Maurice Bucaille, The Bible, The Qur'an and Science, 1978, ISBN 8172311613, p. 125
5. ^ Rahman 2009, p. 1: "The Qur’an is a document that is squarely aimed at man; indeed, it calls itself ‘guidance for mankind’ (hudan liʾal-nās...)".
6. ^ Qur'an 34:28 and Qur'an 2:185
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur’an".Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
8. ^ Qur'an 2:23–24
9. ^ Qur'an 33:40
10. ^ a b Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4
11. ^ Submission.org, Quran: The Final Testament, Authorized English Version with Arabic Text, Revised Edition IV, ISBN 0972920927, p. x.
12. ^ a b c Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
13. ^ a b Qur'an 17:106
14. ^ a b "CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts". Usc.edu. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
15. ^ See:
 William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
 Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur’an, p.51
 F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: “Few have failed to be convinced that … the Qur’an is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation.”
16. ^ Peters (2003), pp.12 and 13
17. ^ Qur'an 87:18–19
18. ^ Qur'an 3:3
19. ^ Qur'an 5:44
20. ^ Qur'an 4:163
21. ^ Qur'an 17:55
22. ^ Qur'an 5:46
23. ^ Qur'an 5:110
24. ^ Qur'an 57:27
25. ^ Qur'an 3:84
26. ^ Qur'an 4:136
27. ^ “The Qur’an assumes the reader to be familiar with the traditions of the ancestors since the age of the Patriarchs, not necessarily in the version of the ‘Children of Israel’ as described in the Bible but also in the version of the ‘Children of Ismail’ as it was alive orally, though interspersed with polytheist elements, at the time of Muhammad. The term Jahiliya (ignorance) used for the pre-Islamic time does not mean that the Arabs were not familiar with their traditional roots but that their knowledge of ethical and spiritual values had been lost.” Exegesis of Bible and Qur’an, H. Krausen.Webcitation.org
28. ^ Nasr (2003), p.42
29. ^ Qur'an 2:67–76
30. ^ a b “Ķur'an, al-”, Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
31. ^ Qur'an Ali.qmt.html#Yusuf Ali.075 Yusuf Ali:75
32. ^ Qur'an 20:2 cf.
33. ^ Qur'an 25:32 cf.
34. ^ Qur'an 7:204
35. ^ See “Ķur'an, al-”, Encyclopedia of Islam Online and[Qur'an 9:111]
36. ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that “Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him.”
37. ^ a b c d *Tabatabaee, 1988, chapter 5
38. ^ See:
 William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
 Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
39. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam online, Muhammad article
40. ^ Qur'an 7:157
41. ^ See:
 Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in San'a
 The Qur'an as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 90-04-10344-9
42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60:201
43. ^ Mohamad K. Yusuff, Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur’an
44. ^ The Koran; A Very Short Introduction, Michael Cook. Oxford University Press, P.117 – P.124
45. ^ Arthur Jeffery and St. Clair-Tisdal et al,Edited by Ibn Warraq, Summarised by Sharon Morad, Leeds. "The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book". Retrieved 2011-03-15.
46. ^ *F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that the Qur’an is the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
47. ^ Qur'an 2:23–4
48. ^ See:
 Corbin (1993), p.12
 Wild (1996), pp. 137, 138, 141 and 147
 Qur'an 2:97
 Qur'an 17:105
49. ^ Wild (1996), pp. 140
50. ^ Qur'an 43:3
51. ^ Corbin (1993), p.10
52. ^ Corbin (1993), pp .10 and 11
53. ^ [Qur'an 17:88]
54. ^ [Qur'an 2:23]
55. ^ [Qur'an 10:38]
56. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an – Miracles
57. ^ Ahmad Dallal, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Qur'an and science
58. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an – Byzantines
59. ^ Arabic: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم, transliterated as: bismi-llāhi ar-raḥmāni ar-raḥīmi.
60. ^ See:
 “Kur`an, al-”, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
 Allen (2000) p. 53
61. ^ Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Koran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!"http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21
62. ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Qur’an text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Qur’an disorganized, repetitive, and very difficult to read." Approaches to the Asian Classics, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press,1990, p. 65
63. ^ Rashad Khalifa, Qur’an: Visual Presentation of the Miracle, Islamic Productions International, 1982. ISBN 0-934894-30-2
64. ^ Qur'an 74:30 Prophecies Made in the Qur’an that Have Already Come True]
65. ^ Issa Boullata, "Literary Structure of Qur’an," Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol.3 p.192, 204
66. ^ Jewishencyclopedia.com – Körner, Moses B. Eliezer
67. ^ Michael Sells, Approaching the Qur’an (White Cloud Press, 1999)
68. ^ Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam." Social Text 3:8 (1983–1984)
69. ^ Preface of Al'-Mizan, reference is to Allameh Tabatabaei
70. ^ Qur'an 2:151
71. ^ Tafseer Al-Mizan
72. ^ How can there be abrogation in the Quran?
73. ^ Are the verses of the Qur'an Abrogated and/or Subtituted?
74. ^ Islam Review – Presented by The Pen vs. the Sword Featured Articles ... Islam: the Facade, the Facts The rosy picture some Muslims are painting about their religion, and the truth they try to hide
75. ^ Corbin (1993), p.9
76. ^ Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, The Principles of Interpretation of the Qur’an
77. ^ a b c Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, Topic: Decisive and Ambiguous verses and "ta'wil"
78. ^ Qur'an 3:7
79. ^ Corbin (1993), pp.7 and 8
80. ^ Corbin (1993), p.46
 ما نَزلت على رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم آية من القرآن إلاّ أقرأنيها وأملاها عليَّ فكتبتها بخطي ، وعلمني تأويلها وتفسيرها، وناسخها ومنسوخها ، ومحكمها ومتشابهها ، وخاصّها وعامّها ، ودعا الله لي أن يعطيني فهمها وحفظها فما نسيتُ آية من كتاب الله تعالى ولا علماً أملاه عليَّ وكتبته منذ دعا الله لي بما دعا ، وما ترك رسول الله علماً علّمه الله من حلال ولا حرام ، ولا أمرٍ ولا نهي كان أو يكون.. إلاّ علّمنيه وحفظته، ولم أنسَ حرفاً واحداً منه
81. ^ Tabatabaee (1988), pp. 37–45
82. ^ Sufi Tafsir and Isma'ili Ta'wil
83. ^ Algar, Hamid (June 2003), The Fusion of the Gnostic and the Political in the Personality and Life of Imam Khomeini (R.A.)
84. ^ a b Corbin (1993), p.7
85. ^ Tabatabaee, Tafsir Al-Mizan
86. ^ Corbin (1993), p.13
87. ^ Aslan, Reza (20 November 2008). "How To Read the Quran".Slate. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
88. ^ a b c d Fatani, Afnan (2006). "Translation and the Qur’an". In Leaman, Oliver. The Qur’an: an encyclopedia. Great Britain: Routeledge. pp. 657–669.
89. ^ Monthlycrescent.com
90. ^ An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matbacat at-'Tadamun n.d.), 380.
91. ^ "More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran".Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review. 12 August 2010
92. ^ Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2002. p. 42.
93. ^ "Surah 3 - Read Quran Online". Retrieved 21 November 2010.
94. ^ "Qur'an (30:2)". Retrieved 6 April 2011.
95. ^ "Land Below Sea Level". Retrieved 6 April 2011.
96. ^ Oxford English/Arabic Dictionary, ISBN 978-0198643128
97. ^ Sonn, Tamara (2006). "Art and the Qur’an". In Leaman, Oliver.The Qur’an: an encyclopedia. Great Britain: Routeledge. pp. 71–81.
98. ^ Navid Kermani, Das ästhetische Erleben des Koran. Munich (1999)
99. ^ Malik Ibn Anas, Muwatta, vol. 1 (Egypt: Dar Ahya al-Turath, n.d.), 201, (no. 473).
100. ^ Suyuti, Tanwir al-Hawalik, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1993), 199.
101. ^ a b Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Mizan, Principles of Understanding the Qur’an, Al-Mawrid
102. ^ Zarkashi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Qur’an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1980), 237.
103. ^ Suyuti, al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur’an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Baydar: Manshurat al-Radi, 1343 AH), 177.
104. ^ E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon
105. ^ Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg
106. ^ Peter G. Riddell, Tony Street, Anthony Hearle Johns, Islam: essays on scripture, thought, and society : a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns, pp. 170–174, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 90-04-10692-8, 9789004106925
107. ^ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134–136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, 9781850437604;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
108. ^ The Qur’an in Manuscript and Print. "The Qur'anic Script". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
109. ^ Article by A. Yusuf Ali. "The Holy Qur’an". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
110. ^ Unicode Qur’an. "Sacred-texts". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
111. ^ Mishafi Font. "Award-winning calligraphic typeface". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
112. ^ ‏3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل
113. ^ Qur'an 2:285
114. ^ USC.edu
115. ^ Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an by Signey Griffith, p.112, in The Qurʼān in its historical context, Gabriel Said Reynolds, ed. Psychology Press, 2008
116. ^ Qur'an-Bible Comparison: A Topical Study of the Two Most Influential and Respectful Books in Western and Middle Eastern Civilizations by Ami Ben-Chanan, p.197-198, Trafford Publishing, 2011
117. ^ New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1967, The Catholic University of America, Washington D C, Vol. VII, p.677
118. ^ "On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran" by Ibn Rawandi, found in What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text, and Commentary, Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, ed. ISBN 1-57392-945-X
119. ^ Leaman, Oliver (2006). "Cyberspace and the Qur’an". In Leaman, Oliver. The Qur’an: an encyclopedia. Great Britain: Routeledge. pp. 130–135.
120. ^ Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Literature and the Qur’an, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216
121. ^ Mahfouz (2006), p.35
122. ^ Kugle (2006), p.47; Esposito (2000a), p.275
123. ^ Rippin, Andrew (2006). "Cyberspace and the Quran". In Leaman, Oliver. The Qur'an: an encyclopedia. Great Britain: Routeledge. pp. 159–163.
References
 Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226702863.
 Allen, Roger (2000). An Introduction to Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521776570.
 Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161.
 Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
 Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press.ISBN 0253347114.
 Mahfouz, Tarek (2006). Speak Arabic Instantly. Lulu Press, Inc.. ISBN 1847289002.
 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0060507144.
 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur’an". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
 Peters, Francis E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-12373-X.
 Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
 Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.
 Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1988). The Qur’an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Routledge.ISBN 0710302665.
 Wild, Stefan (1996). The Quʼran as Text. Brill. ISBN 9004093001.
Further reading
Encyclopedias
 Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Jane Dammen McAuliffe et al. (eds.) (1st ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. 2001-2006. ISBN 9004114653.
 The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Oliver Leaman et al. (eds.) (1 ed.). Routledge. 2005. ISBN 9780415775298.
Academic journals
 Journal of Qur'anic Studies / Majallat al-dirāsāt al-Qurʹānīyah. School of Oriental and African Studies. 1999-present. ISSN 1465-3591.
Traditional Qur'anic commentaries (tafsir)
Main article: List of tafsir
 Al-Tabari, Jamiʿ al-bayān ʿan taʾwil al-Qurʾān, Cairo 1955–69, transl. J. Cooper (ed.), The Commentary on the Qur’an, Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-920142-0
Early Western scholarship
 Nöldeke, Theodor – Geschichte des Qorâns, Göttingen, 1860.
Recent scholarship
 Al-Azami, M. M. – The History of the Qur’anic Text from Revelation to Compilation, UK Islamic Academy: Leicester 2003.
 Gunter Luling A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 2003. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 81-208-1952-7
 Luxenberg, Christoph (2004) – The Syro-Aramaic Reading Of The Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Qur’an, Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007 ISBN 3-89930-088-2
 McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (1991). Qurʼānic Christians : an analysis of classical and modern exegesis. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521364706.
 Puin, Gerd R. – "Observations on Early Qur’an Manuscripts in Sana'a," in The Qur’an as Text, ed. Stefan Wild, , E. J. Brill 1996, pp. 107–111 (as reprinted in What the Koran Really Says, ed. Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, 2002)[unreliable source?]
 Robinson, Neal, Discovering the Qur’an, Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58901-024-8
 Sells, Michael, – Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations, White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 1-883991-26-9
 Stowasser, Barbara Freyer – Women in the Qur’an, Traditions, and Interpretation, Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996),ISBN 0-19-511148-6
 Wansbrough, John – Quranic Studies, Oxford University Press, 1977
 Bell, Richard; William Montgomery Watt (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748605972.

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